PV integrated multi-leg powered constant quasi-dynamic charging system for low-speed vehicles | Scientific Reports

Scientific Reports volume 14, Article number: 19128 (2024) Cite this article

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The global adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) is gaining momentum as countries strive to achieve sustainable development goals. Establishing charging infrastructure is of paramount importance to promote increased EV usage. The cost and weight of the batteries are factors that reduce the sales volume and popularity of EVs. A dynamic charging system has also been developed to enhance the driving range of EVs and mitigate the need for heavy storage requirements. The energy demand of charging infrastructure is increasing day by day. Many countries are installing solar arrays along the roadside to meet the power demand of highway lighting applications and achieve sustainable development goal (SDG) 7. To further enhance this system, this manuscript proposes integrating PV technology with the dynamic charging system. The PV arrays and energy storage system (ESS) collaborate to power the dynamic charging system. A multi-leg inverter is employed to energize the charging couplers, while a resonant network improves the power transfer capability of the couplers. On the receiver side, a resonant network ensures the delivery of constant voltage and constant current by tuning the network topology. The 3.3 kW five-legged inverter is developed to energize the four double-D-shaped charging couplers. The common DC bus delivers 350 V to the inverter, and the charging system delivers 350 V, 8.85 A to the EV batteries.

Achieving a sustainable future requires collaboration to adhere to the Paris Agreement1. It is essential for every industry, including the automotive sector, to take responsibility for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and protecting our planet2. It’s reassuring to note that passenger vehicles are now recognized as significant contributors to global emissions, and the automotive industry is taking decisive measures to mitigate its impact. Over the past decade, the industry has made impressive strides in decarbonizing its operations and can anticipate even more progress. Focusing on fleet electrification can reduce emissions from internal combustion engines by up to 65%3,4. The global market for electric vehicles (EVs) has witnessed a significant surge in sales, indicating a growing trend towards eco-friendly modes of transportation5. According to recent data, the first quarter of 2023 saw a remarkable 25% increase in EV sales, with a staggering 2.3 million units sold worldwide. This shift can be attributed to the ongoing decarbonization challenge, which has spurred the adoption of EVs6. With the aid of supportive policies and incentives, this upward trend is expected to continue. Industry experts such as Virta Ltd7 have projected that the sales of EVs may reach 14 million units by the end of 2023.

The proliferation of EVs has faced a significant obstacle in the form of inadequate public charging infrastructure8. Countries must establish a robust backbone of charging infrastructure to overcome this hurdle, which spans the nation, considering variables such as traffic patterns and population density. It is essential to satisfy the demand for charging through easily accessible and cost-effective infrastructure, whether home-based, workplace charging stations, or publicly available charging stations, to sustain the growth of EV sales9. Wired charging, battery swapping, and wireless charging are the significant methods for EV charging10. Charging EVs through wired means is a commonly employed method. This mode of charging necessitates the usage of a cable that connects the EVs to a charging point. Wired charging is categorized into three levels: level 1, level 2, and DC fast charging11. The vehicle needs higher capacity batteries, a charging schedule, and fast charging stations to reduce the waiting time12. This charging method is less convenient and slower than other forms. The charging cables are also exposed to the elements, which may cause damage over time and pose a potential trip hazard13. Battery swapping is a newer type of EV charging that involves exchanging a depleted battery pack for a fully charged one. This process is typically much faster than wired charging, but it requires access to battery swapping stations, which are not widely available and require unique batteries14. The methods mentioned above are significantly dependent on energy storage devices. The demand for rare and valuable elements (lithium, nickel, and cobalt) is widely anticipated to persistently surge with the rapid expansion and evolution of the EV sector. Yet, the scarcity and restricted availability of these elements in a limited number of countries augur a possible emergence of supply chain complexities in the coming years15. The wireless charging system eliminates the demerits of wired and battery-swapping charging methods16. Stationary, quasi-dynamic, and dynamic are the significant classifications of wireless charging methods. Wireless charging methods eliminate driver dependency on the charging process and improve its convenience17. Dynamic and quasi-dynamic wireless charging is a method of charging a vehicle in motion that reduces the requirement for high-capacity energy storage elements and increases the driving ranges of EVs10.

High-frequency power converters, charging couplers, and resonant networks are the significant components of the dynamic wireless charging (DWC) system. Charging couplers can be classified with consideration of flux orientation. The 1-D flux generators (vertical) are non-polarized pads, and 2-D flux generators (vertical and horizontal) are known as polarized pads18. Circular, square, rectangular, and hexagonal pads are non-polarized, while double-D shaped, quadrature pads integrated with double-D shaped, and bipolar pads are polarized. Non-polarized pads are more suitable for stationary charging, whereas polarized pads are for dynamic charging systems19. High-frequency power inverters energize and de-energize the charging couplers. Generally, researchers prefer a conventional H-bridge inverter due to its convenient and simple control circuitry. Researchers have proposed an N H-bridge inverter20, a single H-bridge inverter21, and an N + 1-legged inverter22 to energize the N transmitter pads. The N-legged inverter requires fewer switches than the conventional H-bridge inverter while driving the N-l charging pads. The resonant network assists the charging couplers in transferring the maximum efficiency under misalignment conditions and helps the inverter achieve smooth switching operations. The resonant network can be classified into two categories concerning the number of passive elements. The network has a single capacitor, mono-resonant, and multiple capacitors and inductors, multi-resonant networks23.

As global concerns regarding the depletion of non-renewable energy sources continue to mount, the scientific community is increasingly exploring the potential of power generation using renewable energy sources1. Renewable energy integration with road transportation is an emerging technology23. Countries are promoting and developing this technology to attain SDG 7. Researchers have proposed a solar-based automatic surveillance system for monitoring vehicle speed4, a PV-powered water pumping system5, and solar pavements to encourage PV-based EV charging technology6. The proposed charging system utilizes roadside solar power to charge EVs. The five-leg inverter energizes the four double-D transmitters and a series capacitor, compensating for the transmitting power. The single double-D receiver pad extracts the flux from the transmitter pads while moving over them. The receiver-side hybrid compensation topology delivers constant voltage and current relative to the battery’s state. An anti-parallel auxiliary switch connects and disconnects the compensation inductor to alter the charging system's operating modes. This proposed system eliminates the requirement of a DC-DC converter on the receiver side, additional passive elements, and communication between the transmitter and receiver units to achieve a constant charging profile. The misalignment and load variation tolerance are achieved with transmitter-side series compensation and receiver-side LCC and SP compensation. The following are the major contributions of the manuscript.

To integrate PV system with dynamic wireless charging systems, thereby meeting the energy demands of charging infrastructure and helping to achieve sustainable development goal (SDG) 7.

The proposed work greatly increases the power transfer capabilities and efficiency of the charging system by introducing a 3.3 kW five-legged inverter intended to activate four double-D-shaped charging couplers.

To optimize the charging process, a resonant network is utilized on both the transmitter and receiver sides to improve power transfer and guarantee the delivery of constant voltage and current through network topology adjustment.

In this manuscript, Sect “Methods” elaborates on the working of the proposed charging system. The PV-integrated DC-DC converter topology, five-legged inverter, hybrid compensation network, and charging coupler arrangements are discussed briefly with their fundamental concepts. Sect “Results and discussion” analyzes the experimental setup of the proposed charging system. This section briefly examines the S-SP and S-LCC modes with experimental waveforms, and the delivery of CC and CV profiles is represented. Finally, Sect “Conclusions” concludes the investigations of the proposed work with its limitations and future scope. The essential sections of the proposed charging system are PV-integrated DC bus, five-legged inverter, S-SP/LCC resonant network, and DD charging couplers. Figure 1 illustrates the essential blocks of the proposed charging system.

Essential representation of the dynamic charging system.

The proposed system utilizes the solar power generated by the pole-mounted 5 kW solar arrays. The energy storage device (ESD) delivers the power without solar energy to the charging system. The bus voltage is 350 V, and the PV source is integrated with dc-dc converter and ESD promise the delivery of 350 V to the DC bus. The MPPT DC-DC converter is a necessary technology that optimizes the performance of PV arrays30. The PV arrays generate lower voltage than the main grid. The DC-DC converter needs to optimize the voltage of the PV arrays31. The converter usually operates using the boost topology and senses the voltage and current of the PV arrays through the sensors at a specific sampling cycle. These values are fed to the MPPT, which determines the MPP and delivers the \({\text{V}}_{{{\text{pv}}}}^{{{\text{ref}}}} {\text{ and I}}_{{{\text{pv}}}}^{{{\text{ref}}}}\). The boost converter matches these variables, with Vref being the most commonly chosen variable. The measured power is compared to the reference value of MPP, and any differences are adjusted by the duty cycle, α of the boost converter through a proportional-integral (PI) controller. The blocks of the PV integrated DC-DC converter is represented in Fig. 2. The converter effectively extracts the maximum power from the PV array when the measured power equals the reference values. Irradiation (W/m2) and temperature (℃) of the solar system at particular locations decide the PV array’s voltage rating32.

DC-DC conversion integrated with MPPT.

The efficiency of the MPPT, ƞMPPT is the ratio of integral of actual power, Pact to maximum power, Pmax over the particular period. The I-V curve of the PV arrays can be obtained by neglecting the internal shunt resistance of the solar arrays33,34.

The PI controller generated the duty cycle of the boost converter concerning the MPPT output. The duty cycle is adjusted to deliver the desired DC voltage when the PV array output is between nominal minimum and maximum preset values. The switching frequency of the DC-DC The converter is 10 kHz, delivering 350 V output with 48 V input. Equation (2) helps to determine the duty cycle, α concerning the minimum input voltage to the converter, VPV(min), required output voltage, Vdc, and converter efficiency, ƞboost.

When the irradiance level is too low, the PV energy is insufficient to satisfy the charging system’s energy demand35. Then, the ESD delivers the energy requirement by the charging system. When the PV arrays generate sufficient power, the MPPT converter delivers the input power to the charging system. The ESD stores the energy in the no-load condition, and PV energy is higher than ESD energy.

Recent technological advancements have paved the way for integrating multi-leg inverters as a highly viable option for powering transmitter pads36. This particular inverter design boasts several advantages over the traditional H-bridge inverter, including a reduced number of switches and a wide range of power ratings. Figure 3a illustrates the circuit configuration of the multi-leg inverter. The five legs are used to energize the four transmitter pads. The FPGA controller sequentially generates the controlling pulses to the inverter, incorporating dead time during transitions. The switching pulses are sequentially generated, and the consecutive coils are efficiently energized. Legs 1 and 2 switches receive high triggering pulses to energize transmitter pad 1. The high triggering pulses shift from legs 1–2 to legs 2–3 in relation to the horizontal movement of the receiver pad. The receiver pad moves at a particular speed, which determines the leg transition. Inverter leg transitions and sequential controlling pulses must be synchronized because they depend on each other. Figure 3b, c represent the waveforms of the five-legged inverter. The dead time during leg transitions and the phase delay angle, θ, between the switches ensure soft switching. Using a phase-shifted modulation technique, the controller generates the control pulses for the two-leg switches. This θ in the phase-shift modulation technique determines the inverter’s output voltage.

(a) Five-legged inverter (b) voltage sequence of the inverter (c) phase-shifted waveform of the inverter.

The Vinv is inversely proportional to the delay angle. An increase in θ reduces the angular pulse width, δ., and the Vinv decreases proportionally. The instantaneous output voltage, V inv and fundamental harmonic voltage, Vinv1 of the Inverter for the particular Vdc and δ can be calculated using Eqs. (3) and (4) 37.

During the transitional phases of inverter legs, sudden and potentially harmful transients can occur without a receiver pad. A dead time prevents this and ensures smooth switching, and the optimal θ is set to 300, considering Vinv. The dead time also helps reduce conduction losses in the Inverter. The Vinv1, Vinv2, Vinv3 and Vinv4 energize the transmitter pad 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

The utilization of an inductive power transfer system is often plagued by recurring issues, such as loosely coupled coil structures and misalignment problems. These issues lead to a high leakage inductance between the coils, causing a decrease in the system’s power transfer capabilities and efficiency. However, effectively implementing passive resonant networks for reactive power compensation can mitigate these concerns38. By compensating for the reactive power, the system can significantly enhance its ability to transfer maximum power39.

The receiver-side hybrid resonant network topology is proposed in this manuscript to deliver the constant voltage and constant current. The anti-parallel auxiliary switch, TASW, connects and disconnects the series compensation inductor to shift the mode of operation. A series compensation with a single capacitor is used on the transmitter side. This compensation has reduced the number of passive elements and withstand the load variations and misalignment. Figure 4a, b represent the equivalent S-LCC and S-SP network circuits. The Eqs. (5), (6), (7), (8), (9) must be satisfied to deliver the S-LCC network’s constant current. The CC mode extends the battery life and enhances the efficiency of the DWC system. The total mutual inductance LM includes the cross-coupling (coupling between transmitters) and transcoupling (coupling between transmitter and receiver) inductance.

where

(a) CC mode (S-LCC) (b) CV mode (S-SP).

The transconductance of the S-LCC network with a current transferring ratio can be achieved by Eq. (9). The total input impedance of the S-LCC network can be achieved by Eq. (10).

The LC and π network’s cascaded structure ensures constant current delivery to the charging device. The charging system delivers a constant rated current when the battery voltage is lesser than the rated voltage and gradually increases towards its rated value. The auxiliary switch closes and disconnects the inductor when the battery voltage reaches the rated value. The charging network delivers constant voltage, and the current is decaying rapidly. Equations (12), (13) must be satisfied to deliver the constant voltage by S-SP networks. The total impedance of the S-SP network can be achieved by Eq. (14). The T-network ensures the constant voltage delivery to the charging system.

The Eqs. (10), (14) illustrate the total impedance of the CC and CV modes equivalent network. Figure 5 depicts the total input impedance response curve with the frequency sweep for the various load resistance, RL and co-efficient of coupling k. Figure 5a–f represent the total impedances' magnitude plot and Fig. 5c–h represents the total impedances’ phase plot.

Frequency sweep of CC mode total impedance (a) \(\left| {{\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incc}}}} } \right|{\text{ concerning the R}}_{{\text{L}}}\) (b) \(\left| {{\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incc}}}} } \right|{\text{ concerning the k}}\) (c) \(\angle {\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incc}}}} {\text{ concerning the R}}_{{\text{L}}}\) (d) \(\angle {\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incc}}}} {\text{ concerning the k}}\); CV Mode (e) \(\left| {{\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incv}}}} } \right|{\text{ concerning the R}}_{{\text{L}}}\) (f) \(\left| {{\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incv}}}} } \right|{\text{ concerning the k}}\) (g) \(\angle {\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incv}}}} {\text{ concerning the R}}_{{\text{L}}}\) (h) \(\angle {\text{Z}}_{{{\text{incv}}}} {\text{ concerning the k}}\).

The proposed system’s assumed quality factor, Q, is 5, and the concern critical coupling coefficient, kc, is 0.248. The system’s coupling coefficient must be lesser than kc, and the assumed value is 0.247. The RL varies from 25 to 175%, and the k varies from 0.1 to 0.35. The |Zin| curve attains a lower level at two different frequencies, and the concerned voltage gain of the system reaches maximum. The two different bifurcation frequencies are achieved for different load and coupling variations40,41. The phase angle reaches zero at the resonant frequency. The operating resonant frequency of the charging system is 85 kHz, as suggested by SAE. The |zin| reaches a minimum at the resonant frequency for the concern k variations. When k reaches a minimum value like k = 0.1, there is only one minimal |Zin|, and the phase plot differs from other k values. The phase angle must always be positive and slightly more significant than the resonant frequency to achieve the soft switching. The existing articles suggest that additional passive elements in stationary charging can achieve constant charging with the modified resonant networks. This manuscript proposes the receiver side controlled constant charging for N-legged inverter-fed N-1 transmitters with a single additional anti-parallel switch. It eliminates the requirement for additional passive elements and communication between ground and vehicle assembly.

The charging couplers are a crucial element of the wireless charging system, playing a pivotal role in ensuring the charging process’s efficiency, safety, and reliability. When selecting an appropriate charging coupler, various critical factors must be considered, including its ability to withstand misalignment, interoperability, heat dissipation, power transfer distance, and overall efficiency18. This manuscript has chosen the DD coupler due to its exceptional horizontal misalignment tolerance42. Figure 6 provides a comprehensive overview of the charging system, depicting the dimensions and arrangement of the charging coupler.

Charging couplers arrangement.

ANSYS FEA tool’s eddy current solver assists in achieving the required inductance with the predefined dimensions. The number of strands and specified AWG can be adjusted in this solver. In the solver settings, the operating resonant frequency is adjusted to 85 kHz and the required excitation current is allowed to obtain the required results. The optimal number of turns, inner distance, and the gap between the turns are achieved by this tool. The parameters can be achieved by stochastically varying the number of turns and ferrites. The charging coil, ferrite core structure, and aluminium shielding contribute to the charging pad inductance. The utilized COSMO ferrite bars belong to the CF297 family.

The mutual inductance of the charging coupler depends on current gain (\({I}_{g}\)), load resistance (\({R}_{L}\)), and resonant frequency (\({f}_{r}\)). The load resistance is determined to deliver 350 V and 3300 W. The current gain also depends on this rated power and delivery voltage. The quality factor (\(Q\)) influences the system’s power transfer efficiency43. The assumed Q is 5, and fr is 85 kHz. The receiver pad coil inductance (\({L}_{SR}\)) is directly proportional to the multiplication of Q and RL and indirectly proportional to fr. The optimal distance between each turn of the coil is 1 mm. The ferrite core slots and coil trays are made using 3D printers. The transmitter pad transfers power whenever the receiver pad aligns over it. The optimal distance between the transmitter pads is maintained without affecting the power transfer profile and transcoupling inductance. Table 1 provides the charging coupler parameters. Figure 7 illustrates the magnetic field spectrum obtained with the help of the FEA tool. The receiver pad is moved horizontally, and the figure represents the corresponding spectrum. The mutual inductance varies with the receiver pad's alignment with the transmitter pad.

Charging couplers magnetic field spectrum- FEA analysis.

The 3.3 kW PV integrated Five-legged inverter hybrid compensated constant dynamic wireless charging system is developed for this proposed manuscript. The 5 kW solar arrays deliver the DC power to the DC bus through the boost converter. When the solar arrays generate sufficient power, the charging system utilizes the PV power. When the solar power is insufficient, the energy storage device delivers the required charging power. The five-legged Inverter receives the constant DC from the DC bus. The Five-legged Inverter utilizes SiC MOSFET, and the FPGA SPARTAN controller generates the driving signals of the MOSFET. The compensation circuits utilize KEMET capacitors and ferrite-cored inductors. The auxiliary switch and rectifier diodes are SiC devices, and auxiliary switches receive driving pulses when the battery voltage reaches the rated value. The charging system delivers 350 V, 8.85 A at the rated load resistance conditions. Figure 8 shows the experimental setup of the proposed system (Table 2).

Experimental setup.

The charging system delivers constant current until the vehicle battery voltage exceeds the rated value. The voltage sensor senses the battery voltage and sends the data to the receiver side controller. The controller sends the driving signals to the auxiliary switch to turn it on and off. The switch is parallel to the receiver-side compensation inductor. The anti-parallel switch conducts during its turn-on state. The auxiliary switch is turned off during this mode, and the receiver side compensation inductor ensures constant current delivery to the EV battery.

The receiver-side resonant network is configured as an LCC network in this mode. The loading resistance is adjusted to represent the constant current mode, which varies by 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% of its rated value. The current delivered to the battery is maintained constant throughout the load variations. The voltage gradually increases and reaches the rated value at the rated load condition. Figure 9 represents the experimental waveforms of the S-LCC network and CC mode waveforms. Figure 9a–e depicts the S-LCC compensated charging systems’ voltage and current waveforms of inverter, transmitter and receiver pad, high-frequency rectifier and boost converter, and Fig. 10f illustrates the CC mode inverter voltage and current. Once the battery reaches the rated voltage, the receiver side controller delivers the high driving pulses to the auxiliary switch.

CC mode experimental waveforms (a) inverter (b) boost converter (c) transmitter pad (d) receiver pad (e) rectifier (f) CC mode output across inverter.

CV mode experimental waveforms (a) inverter (b) boost converter (c) transmitter pad (d) receiver pad (e) rectifier (f) CV mode output across inverter.

The charging system delivers a constant voltage once the battery exceeds the rated voltage. The controller senses the battery voltage and triggers the auxiliary switch to disconnect the compensation inductor. The auxiliary switch is turned on, and the current starts flowing through the switch. The receiver side controller delivers the driving pulses to the auxiliary switch, and the battery gets charged fully.

The receiver side compensation inductor is disconnected from the network, and the resonant network is configured as SP topology. The parallel capacitor ensures the delivery of constant voltage to the charging device. Figure 10 illustrates the experimental waveforms of the S-SP topology. Figure 10a–e represents the voltage and current waveforms of the S-SP compensated charging system, and Fig. 10f depicts the CV mode experimental waveform. The load resistance varies by 100%, 125%, 150% and 175% to achieve the CV mode response curve. The system delivers a constant voltage, and the current delivered to the system reduces. The charging system operates in this mode until the battery reaches 100% charge. The auxiliary switch turned off after the battery charged fully. The operating resonant frequency in both modes is the same.

This paper proposes a PV-integrated five-legged inverter for a constant dynamic wireless charging system with a receiver-side tuned resonant network. This receiver-side control ensures constant current and voltage charging with transmitter-side series compensation. The auxiliary switch connects and disconnects to shift modes; hence, the receiver-side controller delivers the driving pulses to the auxiliary switch based on the battery voltage. Moreover, this control technique eliminates the need for communication between the ground and vehicle assembly. The PV source delivers power to the charging system and the energy storage device. The MPPT DC-DC converter and energy storage device maintain a constant voltage at the DC bus. The allowed dead time during leg transitions and the phase-shifted driving pulses of the five-legged inverter assist the system in achieving soft-switching operations. The proposed charging system is independent of the utility grid and does not increase power demand in the grid network. The stand-alone PV system charges the EV battery during high irradiation conditions. The constant DC bus-fed charging system has fewer power stages than the grid-connected system. The stand-alone PV-integrated charging system primarily depends on solar power. In the future, this stand-alone system can be integrated with the utility grid, and surplus power generation can be fed to the grid during high irradiation.

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Electric vehicle

Photo voltaic

Constant current

Constant power

Constant voltage

Wireless power transfer

Pulse width modulation

Sustainable development goal

Dynamic wireless charging

Proportional and integral

Series-series

Maximum power point

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This work was partly supported by the Government of India, Department of Science and Technology (DST) Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB) Core Research Grant CRG/2020/004073. This research work is also supported in part by SGS Grant from VSB-Technical University of Ostrava under Grant SP2023/005.

This work was supported by Science and Engineering Research Board, CRG/2020/004073, SGS Grant from VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, SP2023/005.

These authors contributed equally: Petr Bernat and Petr Moldrik.

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, 603 203, India

Yuvaraja Shanmugam & Narayanamoorthi Rajamanickam

Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, VSB-Technical University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czech Republic

Petr Bernat & Petr Moldrik

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Y.S. and N.R. wrote the main manuscript text and P.B. and P.M. structured the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Correspondence to Narayanamoorthi Rajamanickam.

The authors declare no competing interests.

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Shanmugam, Y., Rajamanickam, N., Bernat, P. et al. PV integrated multi-leg powered constant quasi-dynamic charging system for low-speed vehicles. Sci Rep 14, 19128 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70105-2

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Received: 14 October 2023

Accepted: 13 August 2024

Published: 19 August 2024

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-70105-2

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